Universalist and impartialist about Utilitarianism Essay

Universalist and impartialist about Utilitarianism - Essay Example The scholarly consensus as of date is that Utilitarianism is a partial system of morality and is somewhat inadequate on account of its authors’ reluctance to front up to complexities of ethics. Utilitarianism asserts that 'It is morally good to act for the general happiness.' As this assessment is taken at face value by most, the salient critical question is ‘What is it that is morally not good,   which stands in opposition to this?’ In answering this question proponents say, ‘acting for unhappiness’. (Grote 123) Utilitarian moral philosophy thus has for its subject the ascertaining of what happiness is, which is placed in polar opposition to unhappiness. Having found what constitutes happiness, the philosophy strives to device methods to achieve that end. But real life experiences and events are not strictly broken into these clear-cut dichotomies and therein lie the major objection to Utilitarianism’s veracity as a ethical theory. The follo wing passages will explain the two central concepts of ‘impartiality’ and ‘universality’ and identify their shortcomings for application in practical ethics. The founding texts of Utilitarianism think of it as inherently ethical. For example, deriving from post-revolutionary French thought, especially that of Helvetius, Godwin asserted that â€Å"Morality is that system of conduct which is determined by a consideration of the greatest general good.† (Godwin, as quoted in Scarre 67) The founding doctrine also makes it clear that the two pillars of ‘impartiality’ and ‘universality’ especially add to its ethical soundness. Utilitarianism espouses the principle of impartiality, to the extent that it places the happiness of all individuals in the community on par with each other. Moreover, it encourages constituent individuals in a group to see the virtue of valuing the happiness of others as much as theirs own. In other words, t he expectation is to rise above the consideration of one’s own individual interests. Put as such, this principle sounds laudable. But as critics point out, there is plenty of scope for incorrect application of this principle, which could lead to adverse outcomes. For example, â€Å"In an action then which, in the truest and widest sense, we should call right or good, there is more than one sort of goodness. And unless we treat rightly this variety of rightness or goodness, our moral philosophy, whatever side we take, must be partial: and we shall not be able to argue against opponents of it without being in danger of arguing against something which, it is probable, an impartial and practical reader will consider morally proper.† (Grote 124) Even actions by individuals are mediated by this consideration for the greatest common good. The agent’s actions are never to enhance his/her own happiness, but that of all concerned. As John Stuart Mill himself clarifies in his treaties, â€Å"As between his own happiness and that of others, utilitarianism requires him to be as strictly impartial as a disinterested and benevolent spectator. In the golden rule of Jesus of Nazareth, we read the complete spirit of the ethics of utility. To do as you would be done by, and to love your neighbour as yourself, constitute the ideal perfection of utilitarian morality.† (Mill, as quoted by Grote 86) One of Utilitarianism’s notable critics is the famous legal theoretician, John Rawls. Rawls’ objection to the notion of impartiality arises from the philosophical system’s blanket application of its principles to the entire social

Social Environmental Essay Example for Free

Social Environmental Essay This paper expounds how human behavior is influenced by social and environmental events through complex interplay of biopsychosocial dimension. Human develops resilience that is constantly challenged by developmental conflict to find eventual survival strategies. II. Introduction a. Society cultural influence on human behavior is an exposure whose products result from interplay between three dimensions; the interaction regarding biological, psychological, and social perspective to life as a whole. b. Importance of bio-psychosocial dimensions in expounding on how human behavior is birthed and found on the fundamental principle of â€Å"cause and effect† analysis of societal control as a denominator to man behavioral exhibit. c. Life events are activities taking place in which man is inevitably a player and contributes greatly to the outcome of such events on the basis of behavioral character. We therefore, do find it so critical to analyze how this behavior is formed and the psychosocial dimensional influence on the formation. d. This paper shall step wisely touch the three basic dimensions with a view to identifying the key elements involved, the specific behavior exhibited and its impact of each in early and later life. e. This paper reveals the dimension and aim at analyzing some resilience or behavioral adaptation developed to live amidst many behavioral challenges. III. Biological Dimension a. This is the closest dimension where natural factors mix with the social environment to produce observable human behavior. i. The natural factors include ecological influence, genetic adaptability, and parental inheritance of an individual. ii. This biological dimension affects personal and cognitive development through complex impulses which interact with other biological systems to determine an individual’s reaction to social stimulus. b. During early life, body systems begin process of adaptive response to develop a competitive survival mode for the present and future exposure. It is a preparative stage of natural body system reaction to societal values and norms c. In later life, there is an existing involuntary response to ways of life in a way that disease develop when adapted response cannot interpret strange exposure IV. Psychological Dimension a. i. This dimension defines the characteristic of the mind and mental makeup resulting from societal life events on human behavior. ii. The key element here is the inter-subjectivity of humanistic approaches that focuses on fundamental issues of life in the society. b. It forms basis for cognitive behavior, involuntary response, behavioral and reasoning in response to convergence of cognitive and formal lessons exposed to in life. c. i. According to Erickson’s psychosocial developmental theory, early life involves negotiation of emotions with environmental culture and social events to balance eight psychosocial crises. The successful completion of negotiation produces â€Å"basic strength† or â€Å"basic virtual†. The challenges of fitting in productively – the crisis. ii. According to Erickosn’s and Freud’s, this is the stage of total self awareness, improvement and development. Negatively, there is showcase of behavioral â€Å"malignancies and maladaptation† in late life with that challenge of absolute zero tolerance to re-orientation. V. Sociology a. The social dimension domain refers to characteristics of human beings regarding their interaction through collective co-existence in society. i. Key elements here are behavioral response to ones input, expectation to family relationships, cultural orientation, institutional educations, societal norms, rules and regulations. ii. Aspects of behavior affected by social life events are numerous. It form the complex identity for age and overall life stages in education, marriage etc. b. Awareness of educational need in early life and behavioral conformation to this societal expectation. c. Awareness of several expectations in areas like marriage, and self guilt from perception of not belonging to societal identity, a feeling of rejection or being an outcast. VI. Coping and Resilience for Survival. a. Coping with perpetual influence of environmental events conflict in developing the eventual human behavior is required to build up survival strategies. b. Through outcome of negative and positive experiences with suitable rescue aid, the prevailing ones determine the ability of man to gain back any setback in development or formed the stability of overall behavioral display. c. In pursuit of survival, it is sufficed to theorize that human beings cope and maintain well-being through institutions with most acceptance of his developed behavior, be it spiritual or social support. VII. Conclusion a. The understanding of this three dimensional approach gives a holistic picture of intrinsic and extrinsic behaviors exhibited by man to exist. b. Human behavior is imprisoned by interplay of forces responding to natural, social and environmental events. There is yet no freedom for independent behavioral development if man must survive. VIII. Bibliography in APA format Erikson, Erik H. (1986). Childhood and Society. New York: Norton. Erikson, Erik H. (1979). Identity and the Life Cycle. New York: Int. Universities Press. Erikson, Erik H. (1968). Identity, Youth and Crisis. New York: Norton,. Kendra van W. (n. d. ). Eriksons Theory of Psychosocial Development. Available at: http://psychology. about. com/lr/psychosocial_development/5045/1/. 04/19/2009. Sheehy, Gail. (1976). Passages: Predictable Crises of Adult Life. New York: E. P. Dutton. Stevens, Richard. (1983). Erikson: An Introduction. New York: St. Martins. http://www. businessballs. com/maslow. htm

Free Essays On Shakespeares Sonnet 153 :: Sonnet essays

Analysis of Sonnet 153 Cupid laid by his brand and fell asleep. A maid of Dian's this advantage found, And his love-kindling fire did quickly steep In a cold valley-fountain of that ground; Which borrow'd from this holy fire of Love A dateless lively heat, still to endure, And grew a seething bath which men yet prove Against strange maladies a sovereign cure. But at my mistress' eye Love's brand new fir'd, The boy for trial needs would touch my breast. I, sick withal, the help of bath desir'd, And thither hied, a sad distemper'd guest; But found no cure: the bath for my help lies Where Cupid got new fire-my mistress' eyes. This and the next sonnet both share the theme of love through Cupid. The conceit is not new, for it has been found in many poems. One example is from an epigram of Marianus Scholasticus from Henri Estienne's edition to which the theme is shared: "Under these plane trees Eros was resting, held in gentle sleep, having given his torch to the nymphs to take care of. 'What are we waiting for?' said the nymphs to one another. 'If only we could quench together with this same fire in human hearts!' But as the torch set the water also on fire, since then the love-nymphs pur hot water into the bath." Speculation remains as to whether Shakespeare is the author of these two sonnets, but it has never been proven successfully. The source for these sonnets, whoever the autheor, still remains unknown, but I suppose the scholars who diespel Shakespeare's authorship do so on the grounds of it being fairly simple in context, that is, there is not too much ambiguity. Due to the simplicity, I will do a brief paraphrase of the three quatrains and the couplet. 1st: 'Cupid falls asleep and one of Diane's maids (known for her chastity) tried to extinquish Cupid's fire in a pool of water'; 2nd: 'The maid borrowed an endless, lusty fire, which still goes on to this day, and provided [to her dismay] a bath of healing properties'; 3rd: '(Cupid) would curiously touch my heart (leading me to stray towards lust), unless I am in the sight of my lover, because of the "Love's brand" being newly fired [started].

The short story, Winter Dreams, by F. Scott Fitzgerald

The short story, Winter Dreams, by F. Scott Fitzgerald holds lasting impact today, mainly for the author’s ability to weave love, desire, emotion, and the moral fiber of an individual into a story. The underlying theme is centered on how charisma can drives a person to lose sight of their true goal in life, thereby finding pleasure in selfish gain which results in eventual loss. I will develop an analysis of characterization and theme in this famed short story. The story is a narrative account of Dexter Green, a reliable, self-assured individual who falls into the web of infatuation of a beautiful woman, Judy Jones. Ms. Jones is also a self-assured individual. She, however, bases her confidence on her outer beauty, a beauty that intoxicates men, bringing them to her knees. Judy represents intense passion, and she brings it out in men, empowering her own life. She leads Dexter to rather abruptly quit is work as a caddy because he yearns to impress Judy, and working as a caddy doesn’t meet her expectations. At the time Judy is only eleven years old. From a very young age, we see that Dexter is the kind of person who goes after his dreams, makes a plan and follows through, but Judy alters this. The characteristics of Dexter’s personality are made clear by F. Scott Fitzgerald in quick fashion. Dexter’s personality comes to light as Fitzgerald displays how astute, intelligent and confident the boy can be. Like Dexter, most of Fitzgerald ‘s male characters choose to feel empowered at the expense of the real. Only a world of illusion, such as Judy Jones’, that can handle her emotional intensity. For one, the story unfolds by casting a scene between a nurse and a young girl on the golf course. These women are having a heated conversation. Although Dexter is at a distance from the scene, he clearly witnesses the incident as troublesome. In the end, one girl raises a club at the other woman, a nurse. She raises the club as if she was going to pound her. But she doesn’t follow through with her threat. Dexter finds humor in this. His ability to find the comedy behind such childish behavior adds to his own youthful wisdom. Here’s a snippet of this scene, as written by the author: Realizing that the elements of the comedy were implied in the scene, Dexter several times began to laugh, but each time restrained the laugh before it reached audibility. Not only is Dexter smart enough to recognize this altercation as a staged situation, which is merely the ego of two people butting heads, but he does so without allowing this incident to alter his own mood. What’s even more humorous is that Fitzgerald uses two females in this physical altercation on the golf course. Normally, the stereotype would be to place two men arguing while playing a sport. Not only does Fitzgerald squash the stereotyping, but he does so by having one woman threatening to nearly behead another woman with a raised club. This displays Fitzgerald creative knack for bringing humor into a potentially disastrous scene. Beyond this, Dexter is not concerned that this altercation might result in physical injury. He realizes their childish threats will go nowhere. This further strengthens his character. Not only is Dexter able to see that the fracas is not going to actually become violent, but, at fourteen years of age, his analysis of the scene adds to his character. Dexter’s characteristics come across as a young boy who can speak for himself. For instance, he is shown having a conversation with a very established man of the community. Dexter is not the least bit intimidated by this adult presence. Dexter, instead, is perceived by members of the golf course to be one of the best caddies. Dexter, then, makes a decision to quit his caddying job. He has higher aspirations and realizes that he’s gotten all can out of caddying. A golf member hears of this and pleas for the young Dexter to continue to caddy for him, stating that he can make if very worthwhile to Dexter. In response to this plea, Fitzgerald wrote: â€Å"You're not more than fourteen. Why the devil did you decide just this morning that you wanted to quit? You promised that next week you'd go over to the State tournament with me. † I decided I was too old. † Dexter stands up for what he believes. He is not swayed by an adult figure with a high-standing position in, both, the business world and on the golf course. The reader sees that elitism cannot sway the young Dexter from going after what he really wants in life. This is, in fact, very ironic; for Dexter wants to be one of the elite. Years later, Dexter falls into the lustful vision of the very beautiful Ms. Jones. Ms. Jones is more that willing to use her outer beauty to gain countless new lovers. She does begin a relationship with Dexter when he is in his twenties. Judy Jones is even boasted about by three other men that Dexter plays golf with one day. These are, again, some of the elite men in society. They almost salivate as they discuss Judy Jones. â€Å"Good-looking! † cried Mr. Hedrick contemptuously, â€Å"she always looks as if she wanted to be kissed! Turning those big cow-eyes on every calf in town! † Here, we can see Fitzgerald’s light-hearted, almost comical, means of showing how man’s desire can rule a person on certain levels. After this golf outing, Judy and Dexter begin a relationship. Dexter is ecstatic about her. He is—apparently for the first time—overwhelmed with a new appreciation over having Judy in his life. Judy, however, is a hollow person and Dexter doesn’t see this. This shallow characteristic in Judy represents people who are self-centered and seek to make gains by using their physical appearance instead of becoming more knowledgeable. Her hollow personality is at the center of her world. All Dexter sees is her physical characteristics which nearly melt him into submission. She has the same affect on many other men in her life. Near the end of the story, Judy breaks off their relationship. She is too easily swayed by other men’s advances and his financial status. Dexter is crushed by her departure, but he begins to renew his life and starts a relationship with a nice girl. This girl is less than glamorous but is filled with other worthwhile characteristics. Judy, then, runs back to Dexter but he does not take her bait. Dexter then discovers through Delvin, that Judy has since gotten married and is raising a family. Now, however, Judy has lost her beauty and is being treated unfairly by her husband. This husband runs off with other women, leaving Judy alone to raise the kids. In closing, we see who cleverly Fitzgerald develops theme and storyline. Fitzgerald also learned how to shape his short stories to meet the needs of magazine readers while, at the same time, using these serious themes as springboards into longer fiction. Winter Dream is centered around characterization. It’s the characters and their interactions with one another that make this story so empowering. Its impact is still felt today because so much of society continues to be tricked by external beauty’s advances. For, the true beauty comes from deep within the heart and soul of a person who shares their life instead of taking advantage of others. SOURCES F. Scott Fitzgerald  Ã‚   http://people.brandeis.edu/~teuber/fitzgeraldbio.html#winterdreams Introduction to the Short Story  Ã‚   dhttp://www.people.vcu.edu/~bmangum/fitzstories.html

Maslow’s Theory of Personality

Maslow’s served as one of the most influential theorists in his field. He proposed a more simple and appealing theory wchich acted against reductionism and instead proposed a more holistic approach for personality research. Maslow’s theory of personality is based on a theory of motivation, characterized by a particular hierarchy of need and an end product of self-actualization which follows after all the needs have been satisfied. The Theory of Motivation, human behavior is influenced by basic needs. These needs are   ordered in a hierarchy which indicates which of these needs is the most urgent and accordingly which has to be satisfied before a higher need can be catered to. These needs are (1) physiological needs; (2) safety needs; (3) belonging needs; (4) esteem needs; and (5) self-actualization. Consequently, self-actualization, being the last of the stages is reached when all needs are fulfilled. However, achievement of this state is not fixed, it is still a process of development which is always continuous. Self-actualization signifies that the individual has reached and fulfilled all of his potentials, talents and competencies (Boeree). In line with this, the subject for this topic would be Oprah Winfrey. Oprah Winfrey came from an extremely poor family, daughter of a housemaid and a soldier. She lived her childhood in extreme poverty and was often teased by other children due to poverty and her racial background. First, her basic physiological needs, were poorly catered to because of extreme poverty. However, her strong will and character enabled her to attain her safety, belonging and esteem needs. And her status right now as one of the most successful women in the world is a manifestation of a successful self-actualization (A Biography). In self-actualizing an individual, there are three character traits that together shall define a new personality type. First, perception and experience is an integral part of molding a person. His eagerness to discover new things and learn new ideas shall contribute largely to the development of his personality and potentials. Another, in self-actualization, an individual must have a spontaneous attitude in expressing their thoughts and ideas. He must be natural and must have an attitude of general acceptance towards other people and to himself. And lastly, to fully attain self-actualization, individuals must have a sense of belongingness towards the whole society. They should be able to become friendly and empathic to other people’s feelings and idea and capable of creating harmonious interpersonal relationship to people outside his intimate friends. Oprah Winfrey, in her own way had undergone her own self-actualizing process. Her life experiences were manifestations of her successful attainment of her potentials and competencies. First, she was always open to changes, new ideas and experiences. Since her childhood, she had welcomed her potentials and worked hard to develop it. Further, she has always been liberal minded and true to her opinions and thoughts. She was one of the strongest individuals who weren’t afraid to voice out their opinion. And lastly, her commitment to the community and her developed empathy towards other people equipped her to become attached to the community. Thus, personality development is a holistic process. It takes into account physical, mental and emotional needs. And it encompasses personal growth, and goes beyond growth that is attributed with an individual’s ability to reach out to the society in general. References Boeree, C. George. Abraham Maslow. Retrieved November 8, 2007 from http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/maslow.html Heylighen, Francis. A Cognitive-Systematic Reconstruction of Maslow’s Theory of Self-Actualization. Retrieved November 8, 2007 A Biography: Oprah Winfrey. Retrieved November 8, 207 from http://oprah.urbanhustler.com/biography/   

Protection of Minorities within the Context of International Law

Protection of Minorities within the Context of International Law Introduction A critical analysis of international legal instruments reveals that the laws do make reference to ‘minorities’. However, there is lack of a universally acceptable, legally binding definition of the term ‘minority’. The reason for this is that there are numerous minority groups that possibly exist and no proposed definition can accommodate all of them (Forsythe 2012). Moreover, many states provide a restrictive definition to prevent large swathes of their population from falling within the boundaries of the group.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Protection of Minorities within the Context of International Law specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The innumerable and diverse groups claiming to be minorities also make it difficult to formulate a universally acceptable definition. Consequently, there are no firm guidelines informing the definition of the concept ‘minority’ i n international law. However, considerable efforts have been made through different forums by international lawyers to provide guidelines as to factors to consider in defining the concept (Allen Xanathaki 2011). One of the factors to consider in the definition of the minority concept is numerical inferiority. The numerical inferiority factor is determined in reference to the overall size of the states’ population. In addition, ‘non-dominant’ positions of the group are taken into consideration. Politically speaking, a minority situation is brought about by such a group. Another factor to consider is the nationality of the group. To qualify as member of a minority group, one has to be a citizen of the state they live in. As a result, the definition of the concept excludes refugees, foreigners, and immigrant workers (Hatvany 2006). A group may be considered as minority if it is distinguished from the rest of the population in the state they live in with regard to e thnicity, religion, or language. Collective will has also emerged as a factor to consider in the definition of minority. The will comes into play when a group maintains a sense of solidarity and has distinctive characteristics that emerge over a long period of time (Preece 2009). Minorities and International Law: Historical Overview Provisions of international law try to protect the rights and freedoms of persons. The same applies to the case of minorities as a group in the society. The Minority Treaties of the League of Nations Protection of minorities was a major concern during the post World War I period. There were territorial re-alignments brought about by the war. The realignments led to the creation of new countries. The rights and freedoms of minority groups could not be overlooked. It was important to address them in order to have lasting peace in Europe. The minorities’ treaty system of the League of Nations was developed against such a background (Preece 2009).Adve rtising Looking for essay on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The system embraced by the League was structured on individual treaties. The stand-alone treaties addressed particular scenarios in Europe. In most cases, the treaties fell within three clusters. Their classification was informed by the parties involved. The first category was made up of those agreements adopted by the states that lost in the war. They included Austria and Turkey. Others were Hungary and Bulgaria (Hatvany 2006). The second group comprised of the new states created. In this group were Greece, Poland, Romania, and Yugoslavia. The last group was made up of special consideration given to minorities in the new establishments. The new entities included Aland and Upper Silesia (Allen Xanathaki 2011). The system of protection of minorities adopted at this juncture varied from one country to the other. The arrangement was not inten ded to develop into a system of international law for the protection of minorities. The intention is supported by the rejection of the idea to enshrine the protection of minorities in the Covenant of the League of Nations. The United States of America made several suggestions to enhance the system. For example, it was suggested that all governments interested in joining the League should respect the rights and freedoms of minority groups. Despite the signing of the covenant, the League Assembly rejected efforts made by some members to improve the system. A case in point is the suggestion by some members to make protection of minorities a universal undertaking (Sigler 2004). As already indicated, many countries were against the expansion of the minority protection system. There are several factors that contributed to this resistance. One of the factors was fear of possible external scrutiny and constraints on the states’ sovereignty. The fear was prompted by the dissatisfactio n expressed by the countries that had already adopted the system. The states maintained that the minority protection system allowed any person to file a petition against them. Such petitions would force the states to appear in public courts as defendants against their own citizens (Preece 2009). Another reason for the rejection of the expansion had to do with the colonial territories under the control of European countries. The expansion would have raised issues with the legitimacy of the control that these countries had over the colonies. The questions would have required the colonialists to grant their subjects the freedoms and rights espoused in the minority protection system.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Protection of Minorities within the Context of International Law specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The right to self-determination was only applicable to the situation in Europe and European powers were not wi lling to extend it to other regions in the world, such as in Africa. Therefore, the system was not developed to tackle minority issues in countries under the control of the colonialists (Thornberry 2003). As made clear in the discourse above, the protection of minority system has faced a number of challenges since its inception. The challenges led to its failure, especially as a result of the ramifications of World War I. The political and economic reality of the time could also have led to the failure of the system. According to Forsythe (2012), World War II led to the disintegration of the League of Nations. The disintegration brought down the protection of minority system. However, protection of the minority system has continued to be of value to the development of international law touching on the welfare of this group (Forsythe 2012). It is a fact beyond doubt that the minority system had several inherent limitations that affected its effectiveness as an instrument of internati onal law. The limitations notwithstanding, the system provided some level of protection to the identified minority groups in the countries. It is a fact that the system offered special protection to minorities, which created two possible scenarios. The two scenarios were ‘equality’ (Sigler 2004) and non-discrimination against this category of citizens. The development provided grounds for the formulation of international laws for the protection of the rights of minorities. The system also led to the formation of the International Judicial Protection of the Minorities. The Permanent Court of Justice (PCIJ) gave decisions and opinions that are still applied during discussions on minority rights in international law (Sigler 2004). Minority Protection under the UN The United Nations was formed after the collapse of the League of Nations. It acted as the new world organisation following the World War II. However, in contrast to the League of Nations, it adopted a totally dif ferent perspective as far as the protection of minority groups in the world was concerned. Initially, the UN did not make any efforts to adopt the minority protection system of the League (Hatvany 2006). Moreover, the organisation did not make attempts to develop a new system for the protection of minorities. European nations dealt with the issue of minorities through bilateral or multilateral treaties without the involvement of the UN. The UN was of the opinion that human rights and the principle of non-discrimination were appropriate means of protecting everyone, minority groups included (Rodley 2005).Advertising Looking for essay on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The UN General Assembly made efforts to address this issue a few years after the formation of the agency. The efforts were characterised by the passing of the Declaration for the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries (Julie 2010). The declaration was made in 1960. It was based on, among other things, the provision of equal rights and self-determination of people as declared in the Charter of the UN (Julie 2010). The declaration required a speedy and unconditional termination of all forms and manifestations of colonialism. Under Article 2, the declaration provides for the right to self-determination for each and every nation in the world. Based on this right, sovereign countries have control over their political, economic, and socio-cultural progression (Hilpold 2007a). To achieve its mandate, the UN heavily depended on the provisions of human rights and the freedom of the nations (Preece 2009). Many people were of the opinion that minority groups were protected through non- discrimination, equal rights, and equality before the law. Such an assumption prompted the adoption of several conventions and declarations in the field of non-discrimination by various international organisations and the UN (Julie 2010). The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was crucial as far as human rights were concerned. It was one of the first aspects of international law that made provisions for the protection of human rights. The declaration complemented the already existing provisions for non-discrimination. Under Article 2, the declaration provides that everyone is entitled to all the human rights in the declaration without distinction of any kind (Hatvany 2006). However, the declaration failed to address the issue of the protection of minority groups. Furthermore, it did not mention the group anywhere. Various states, such as Denmark, made a proposal for the inclusion of provisions for the protection of minorities in the UDHR. However, such proposals were oppos ed by majority of the member states, leading to their rejection. The rejection was as a result of little or no interest on the part of majority member states of the UN with regard to the concept of minorities (Rodley 1995). The rejection of minority rights and protection by majority of UN member states was brought about by many factors. A classic example of such a factor was non-alignment with the policies of the nations touching on cohesion. The nations were concerned that adopting these rights would lead to divisions within their boundaries (Thornberry 2003). Another factor leading to the rejection of these rights involved concerns over the stability of the nation. The states feared that the adoption of such rights will result in distinctions between citizens. Such distinctions will be created by a sense of unfair treatment on the part of those not classified as minorities in the society (Sigler 2004). The General Assembly felt that the UN could not afford to ignore the plight of minority groups (Rodley 2005). The development prompted the authorisation of two commissions expected to thoroughly address the issue of minorities (Hilpold 2007b). In addition to the UDHR, the UN and its affiliates formulated a number of provisions to address human rights on the international arena. In all these legally binding instruments, the UN almost exclusively focused on individual rights and freedoms. However, the instruments did little to acknowledge the minority as a group (Hilpold 2007a). The situation changed in 1948. In this year, the agency formulated the UN Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Hatvany 2006). The convention addressed the rights of minorities separately from individual human rights. However, there is no clear prohibition of any measures taken to destroy these groups other than physical or biological genocide (Julie 2010). Conclusion Internationally, minority protection is mainly based on human rights and non-discriminati on. Such a basis is evident even in instruments that are designed solely for minority protection. The observation raises the question of whether or not individual rights and non-discrimination offer enough protection to minorities. Moreover, there are concerns over the effectiveness of individual rights and non-discrimination approach in addressing the problems faced by minority groups. References Allen, S Xanathaki, A 2011, Reflections on the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, Haart Publishing, London. Forsythe, D 2012, Human rights in international relations, Cambridge University Press, London. Hatvany, C 2006, ‘Legitimacy of kin-state politics: a theoretical approach’, Regio-Minorities, Politics, Society, vol. 1, pp. 47-64. Hilpold, P 2007a, ‘Tendencies of minority protection in the law of the European Union’, Miskolc Journal of International Law, vol. 5 no. 1, pp. 34-49. Hilpold, P 2007b, ‘UN standard setting in the field of mino rity rights’, Int. J of Minority and Group Rights, vol. 181 no. 14, pp. 342-369. Julie R 2010, ‘Minority rights in a time of multiculturalism’, The Evolving Scope of the Framework Convention on the Protection of Minorities, vol. 99 no. 10, pp. 243-267. Preece, J 2009, ‘National minority rights vs. state sovereignty in Europe: changing norms in international relations?’, Nations and Nationalism, vol. 3 no. 3, pp. 345-364. Rodley, N 2005, ‘Conceptual problems in the protection of minorities: international legal developments’, Human Rights Quarterly, vol. 17 no. 1, pp. 48-71. Sigler, A 2004, Minority rights: a comparative analysis, Greenwood Press, Connecticut. Thornberry, P 2003, International law and the rights of minorities, Clarendon Press, Connecticut.

The Role of the Settings in the Novel Passing by Nella Larson

The Role of the Settings in the Novel Passing by Nella Larson In this essay, I argue the issue of the role of settings in the novel Passing by Nella Larson, because the resent research in the field of literature have shown that the setting makes the basis for the story that the author is telling.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Role of the Settings in the Novel Passing by Nella Larson specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More One of the most well-know contemporary American writers, Nella Larsen explores a subject long discussed and presents it in a completely new way. Taking a closer look at the problem of the racial conflict, she also speaks of other important things, such as an individual and a society, and people’s loneliness which can occur even in the center of a crowd. Despite these topics are rather complicated, she manages to hit the very point. And although the methods she has chosen for this purpose are not quite new, they work right for her novel. Larsen’s n ovel Passing is a snapshot of a mulatto woman’s life in the big city of dying dreams. Taking two different lives of two similar people, Irene Walsh and Clare Kendry, Larsen shows the difficulties that a person of mixed races can face. The two lives, crossing and parting, and crossing again, show the effect that two different life approaches of the two characters have on their future state and the reaction of by the society. Showing how dangerous it is to forget one’s national heritage, the novel is a piece of a really heart-rending writing. If you have ever looked for a frame for a photograph, you must have noticed how important the background is. It makes the central topic brighter, more expressive, –and marks its place in the room. The same goes for setting in the novel. It can emphasize a dramatic moment, or help the reader get prepared for the new turn of the plot, or smoothen the atmosphere into a mild pause before the grand event. However, the setting is u sually silent, while the motion is centered in the main scene. The attention is focused on the leading character, and no one bothers with the background.Advertising Looking for essay on american literature? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This description suits every novel but for Passing by Nella Larson. Her case is the case of the setting talking together with the character and, perhaps, even being a specific character itself. First, the settings for the novel are not numerous. The two basic ones, of a big scale, are New York and Chicago (Booth 403). The one that is going to be developed is the one of New York. The overall mood of the play that is centered in the New York City is far from being cheerful. However, that is what the whole story demands, and it is logically grounded that the play should be taking place in gloomy eenvironment. These are the very first lines of the novel that express the attitude of the lead, Irene, towards those two places. New York, the place where Irene Westover resides, is described as rather messy, hot and not very hospitable place. The most peculiar thing is that there is no actual, full description of the city. The remarks are made in a passing-by tone, marking the city as â€Å"crowded†, with â€Å"†boiling traffic† (Larsen 12). The very mood of the city that Larson is trying to convey to the reader sounds in the description of Irene’s shopping: Without too much trouble she had got the mechanical aeroplane for Junior. But the drawing book, for which Ted was so gravely and instantly given her precise instructions, had sent her in and out of five shops without success. (Larson 11) You might have noticed the despair that this description is shot through. The labyrinth of shops that Irene was trapped in symbolized both her spirits, suddenly sunken in the city where she does not belong, and the atmosphere of the city that was intention ally crowded and tense, not letting her in. It is not that the city is too small; the thing is that there is no place for Irene in it.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Role of the Settings in the Novel Passing by Nella Larson specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It is only Dayton’s where she can escape the world that does not want her and look at the situation from the top. This is the place where she can look down on the world, not vice versa. Things look different when Irene is peeping out on the big world from the thick glass of Dayton’s windows. The â€Å"cool breeze† that she can feel there, and the grass in the street that seems greener from here, are not hostile to her anymore. She can feel safe here. Thus, Dayton, a smaller setting, symbolizes an island of hope in the middle of the ocean of the cold world that Irene is living in. However, there is one â€Å"but† for this inhospitab le atmosphere that helps Irene to survive through the people casting unpleasant looks at her. However, being a shelter that hides Irene away from the upsetting mood of the city, this only adds to her feelings, making her understand that she is a stranger in this place. The whole city is a setting that makes the background for the lead character, Irene, for her life and feelings. The problem of belonging to a different race has also been discussed well. Larsen emphasizes how hard it is to be a woman and that it is twice as hard to be a black woman in the big city. Meeting Clare, Irene meets a part of her past that has suddenly turned into flesh and blood. Irene wants to ask her questions, a lot of questions, but something holds her back, a mixture of her childish prejudices with the reasons of a grown-up. The complicity of the situation is perfectly emphasized by the details of the setting. The â€Å"sweetly scented woman† (14) that Clare was, she was described by Irene as â⠂¬Å"white woman†, that is, she fell out of the range of people Irene socialized with. And these were the two simple words that made the difference! She was from the â€Å"West side†, and she had a â€Å"big family†. Those were the details of the setting that made Clare look such an unwanted and at the same time desirable visvis.Advertising Looking for essay on american literature? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The additional detail that makes the setting for Irene complete is Clare’s lifestyle. Clare is a character to remember, well-thought and brilliantly described. The idea of the woman who mixes with the people not belonging to her social layer is clear-cut: There was one rumour about Clare Kendry’s having been seen at the dinner hour in a fashionable hotel in company with another woman and two men, all of them white. And dressed! And there was another which told of her driving in Lincoln Park with a man, unmistakably white, and evidently rich, Packard limousine and all that. (Larsen 37) The small details that make the image of the people acting in the novel are the very settings that Larson makes. They are composed of tiniest issues, like a piece of fabric, and yet they make the scene complete, providing a solid background. Like wallpaper that creates the tone of the room, the setting creates the atmosphere the characters live in. The setting helps not to spare words on the unnecessary descriptions of the characters. In addition, it fills the scene with the spirit of the country of those times, and with the specific atmosphere of each city that the characters have ever been to, making the novel look like a piece of someone’s life worked into a story. This is where the shine of the NYC ends at. The capital letters fade away, leaving the remaining, which is nothing but the pile of dust. The city is loud and bossy, its tempo does not fit Irene’s way of life and her habits. It is big and messy, with lots of space for show and very little room for human feelings. Simple as that, the setting makes the reader understand the tragedy of a black woman living in the place where she is something, not even someone, to peer and point fingers at. She is an animal in the zoo, and she understands that pretty well. There is nothing that can show this but the tiny details of the New York environment. Trying to pass for an ordinary woman, Irene wants to dissolve in the atmosphere that she finds weird and hostile. This seems impossible, but Irene has no other way out. In fact, there is one, but committing suicide is not on her agenda. Dragging a life of this kind, one might become detached from the rest of the people. And, indeed, Irene lives in a separate world which does not come into contact with the neighboring universe. Actually, it can be said that in Passing, there are several settings for the play, but none for the leading character. She is a hermit here. The explicit idea of a mulatto isolated form the society has been developed in the novel brilliantly. Nella Larson has shown with all the vivid palette how difficult the life of a â€Å"half-blooded† man is. â€Å"For Larson, the tragic mulatto was the only formulation historically available to portray educated middle-class black women in fiction.† (Wall) That all makes Larsen a great writer with the gift to say the things that we need to hear. And she says th em in such a way that everyone can listen to them and accept them, to weave it into their own life pattern. Booth, Alison, J. Paul Hunter, Kelly J. Mays. The Norton Introduction to  Literature (Shorter 10th Edition). New York: NY. 2005. Print. Larsen, Nella. Passing. Minneola, NY: Dover Publications Inc. 2004. Print. Wall, Cheryl A. Passing for What? Aspects of Identity in Nella Larson’s  Novels. JSTOR. 2000. Web. Web.